These are religious beliefs born out of a confusion of the local native tribes when they come into contact with more advanced civilizations. Cargo Cults arise when natives believe they can induce cargo (that is modern tools, clothing, items) to arrive by mimicking the actions of the Westerns they observed.
A lot of this happened in the Melanesian world around the second World War. First the JApanese and later the Allied forces entered into contact with the natives. The natives became impressed with the Allies technology, some of which is shared with them. Then, when the war ends, the "cargo" stops coming. At that point, the natives start building imitations of airports, control towers, even airplanes, in the belief that their presence will cause cargo to appear.
A specific example of such a cult is the John Frum in Vanuatu. (And more locally in PNG, from what one of the missionaries has said.) Named after a mysterious GI (and likely misheard when saying "John from America/where ever").
Cargo cults are beginning to die out, though, as the magical thinking breaks down when cargo does not appear.
Showing posts with label culture. Show all posts
Showing posts with label culture. Show all posts
Monday, June 22, 2009
Saturday, June 20, 2009
Going up to the Mountaintop
Today, we went to the mountaintop village of Konduk (/KOHN dook/) for a baptism there. We were told it'd be about an hour's walk up the mountain, but we had enough people going that we took one of the Landrovers instead. I'm glad we did, as the road started as a very uneven stone road and then we turned off it onto a dirt road. You can see one of the wooden bridges to the right. Some of the group decided to walk over the bridges rather than ride. I'm not entirely sure I blame them for that, as it was an interesting ride.
When we got there, they were doing a worship service before the actual baptisms. They had several people being baptized today, I believe I heard the number 16, but I'll admit I didn't get a full count. (And some were rededications, and just gave testimony, but more on that later.) It seems one of the elders in the church had recently died of leukemia and that death moved a number of his family to come to the church. The service was in the middle, though its order seemed similar to the Sunday services I've been to here (and elsewhere, to some extent, though I found similarities in worship services in Shinto shrines). They were singing English worship songs, some of which I knew or were similar enough to ones I knew. The spoken parts were a mixture of Tok Pisin and tok ples, that is one of the local languages. In the image, those in white tops and black pants or skirts were the baptisees. The congregation sat in two sides, the left side had most (all but one or two) of the men and a few women, the right was nearly all female. I'm not sure if it's a conscious decision to sit as such, the missionaries do not follow this tradition if it is one.
There was a sermon that I could almost follow in Tok Pisin in places, and then it would switch, I assume to the tok ples and I would be lost for a moment. It was on Matthew 4 and fighting agianst the temptations of Satan, even after baptism. When the sermon finished, we walked further up the hill, past where they were preparing the traditional Papuan feast in a mumu, an oven dug into the dirt, filled with hot rocks and then the food (pork) being cooked and covered with earth, straw and leaves. (See right.)
Up the hill, and past some of the town gardens was where they had dammed up a part of a stream (or it might have been a drainage ditch, or a wadi that only filled when it rained) as the baptismal font. They had thrown flower petals into the water. (This seems to be a tradition here with major events. The missionaries throw flowers for those leaving for extended periods or when they're leaving at the end of their terms. I suspect the missionaries adopted it from the locals, not vice-versa.) The area around the font was hilly and uneven (and muddy, as even in the dry season that the country is in now, it rains nearly daily). Yet, 
despite the lack of good views, it seems most of the village and likely several from nearby (such as ourselves) had turned out for the baptism. Thus, it was a bit crowded and the footing unstable in places, but everyone seemed helpful in getting through the bad parts and helping us to get a good view.There was a second sermon here, this time from a woman preacher, which I found striking as almost all the rest of the church leadership I have witnessed here has been male. She preached mostly in tok ples, so I could follow very little of it, save for a few Pisin words that had made their way into it. During her scripture reading, someone read the the Scripture in Tok Pisin first, then she gave it in tok ples, a verse at a time.
What followed were the baptisms. One at a time, they came forward and gave a testimony. Some were rededicating their lives to the church, and thus didn't get immersed, but the others did go in and were immersed in what I can only assume was a cold mountain stream.
A bit of a side note: They are very unaware of the American culture behind a good bit of their clothing. A large amount of the clothing in Papua New Guinea is second hand from Australia and other Western nations. As you can see on the right, one of the elders doing the baptism has a South Park tie, and I will admit while I am fairly liberal in my faith, I am not certain I would wear that tie to a baptism in the US. Simiarly, there was a young man wearing a t-shirt for MTV's Jackass, with the title for the series prominently displayed on the front of the shirt. I doubt that the people here know the culture that these things represent. There was the knowledge that this is the sort of even that one wears a tie to, and I suspect there are not a large number of ties available. (And I doubt that South Park is well known here.)As Miriam was getting a bit tired, we left about halfway through the immersions. On the way back to the car we did see them taking the pork out of the oven and getting ready for the feast. The natives here feast often, as food is usually abundant.
One other note, we did see the grave of the village and church elder who had died. He wanted to be buried near the church (it's the brown building in the background). This is the traditional grave for those who can afford it here. (Or those who are important enough that their families feel they should spend the money on such grave sites.) Inside the small house is the coffin, above ground, surrounded by flowers. I have seen other such graves along the roads here, both the stone and dirt roads up the mountain and the main road back into Mt Hagen. This is the traditional way to bury Big Men, that is civic leaders. (I need to ask how long the graves stay like this, as I have not seen more than one or two in a village.)In all, a very interesting day.
Wednesday, June 17, 2009
Article Notes: Filer, Colin
Custome, Law and Ideology in Papua New Guinea
Colin Filer
Comparing Custom (Kastam or Kastom) and Law (Lo)
Law and Custome seemed to have been blurred, especially between the multiple colonial powers/periods and then into independence. This is especially true for land ownership rights, which became a sticking point with petroleum and mineral mining operations tried to lease lands. Anthropologists were rarely asked to be legal experts on traditional customs with regards to land. Originally, "custom" was used to throw out practices that colonial powers and missionaries disliked. Other problems include Tok Pisin words that occupy a larger semantic range than their English roots.
The concept of Law also ran into problems when it was fragmented into several "rules". Local "Law Men" hashed out the "law", which was mostly whatever they could agree on, usually with respect to amounts due for certain offenses. They would refer to lo bilong tumbuna, that is "Law of the Ancesters" but this was usually as a last ditch effort when losing an argument.
The "Law Men" councils were replaced at independence with a court system. This court system was not always very thorough and these "Law Men" bemoaned their loss of influence. Custom started to gain in strength, though whether these "customs" were actually traditional is up for debate.
Usually, if a company wanted to know about "customs" it was mostly due to land ownership rules and rituals with regards how much they should pay for a lease when starting a mining operation. (See notes on the Society Reform Program). "Customs" however would often change from situtation to situtaion. However, land ownership rights became very important when gold mining started to become more prevelent and the amounts of money being discussed grew. (For a view on this and gender, look at page 12-13 of the document about widow excluded from land rights discussion.)
While some might argue that Custom or customs aren't in practice anymore, they do seem to still be practiced. Customs are practiced, though they may be overly legalized in practice. An example is the mortuary ceremonies.
Colin Filer
Comparing Custom (Kastam or Kastom) and Law (Lo)
Law and Custome seemed to have been blurred, especially between the multiple colonial powers/periods and then into independence. This is especially true for land ownership rights, which became a sticking point with petroleum and mineral mining operations tried to lease lands. Anthropologists were rarely asked to be legal experts on traditional customs with regards to land. Originally, "custom" was used to throw out practices that colonial powers and missionaries disliked. Other problems include Tok Pisin words that occupy a larger semantic range than their English roots.
The concept of Law also ran into problems when it was fragmented into several "rules". Local "Law Men" hashed out the "law", which was mostly whatever they could agree on, usually with respect to amounts due for certain offenses. They would refer to lo bilong tumbuna, that is "Law of the Ancesters" but this was usually as a last ditch effort when losing an argument.
The "Law Men" councils were replaced at independence with a court system. This court system was not always very thorough and these "Law Men" bemoaned their loss of influence. Custom started to gain in strength, though whether these "customs" were actually traditional is up for debate.
Usually, if a company wanted to know about "customs" it was mostly due to land ownership rules and rituals with regards how much they should pay for a lease when starting a mining operation. (See notes on the Society Reform Program). "Customs" however would often change from situtation to situtaion. However, land ownership rights became very important when gold mining started to become more prevelent and the amounts of money being discussed grew. (For a view on this and gender, look at page 12-13 of the document about widow excluded from land rights discussion.)
While some might argue that Custom or customs aren't in practice anymore, they do seem to still be practiced. Customs are practiced, though they may be overly legalized in practice. An example is the mortuary ceremonies.
Wednesday, June 10, 2009
Article Notes: Stewart, PJ and A Strathern
Female Spirit Cults as a Window on Gender Relations in the Highlands of Papua New Guinea
By P J Stewart and A Strathern
Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 5.3 (Sept 9,
1999): p345.
This article examines three cults based around female spirits in the PNG highlands: one in Hagen, one in Duna, and one in Pangia. The cults generally are/were practiced by groups of men worshiping a female spirit, asking for success in reproduction and other things (varied by cult).
Duna, which was the more geographically removed of the three focused on acquiring powers for the individual. Such powers might be detecting witches through divination, healing, etc. Each parish had its own maternal spirit.
Hagen was more group oriented in its goals, stressing alliances through exchanges. Pangia was similarly group-focused.
Christianity has since its introduction influenced these beliefs. Many of the menstral rituals were abandoned, cult practices were dissuaded and it promoted monogamy rather than the polygyny (and some polyandry) practiced by these groups.
Hagen's cult was extant from 1964 through 1984. Pangia's began in the 1920s, but died out within a generation, no longer present when Christian missionaries arrived in 1967. Duna the cults slowly vanished in the 1960s as Christianity came into the region. That said, the middle aged and older adults are still influenced by some of the cult beliefs today.
Hagen's cult was around Amb Kor. The tribe would invite allies to participate in the rituals. They divived the men into 2 groups, rapa (men's house) and amb-nga (women's house). One man from each group would be paired together in the ritual. Women stayed outside of the ritual grounds and sex was avoided during the ritual. However, women provided the food and sacrifices for the rituals. After preparations were complete, there would be a ritual dance and a feast.
The Pangia cult was around Laiyeroa. It placed limits on menstrating women. Also limited which foods could be consumed and involved a ritualized cooking. Sex again was avoided during the ritual. There was a fear about injesting menstral blood. It was believed that doing so could make a man pregnant. As gender confusion is greatly feared in the culture, any such injestion was greatly feared and the rituals protected the men from the power of menstral blood.
In Duna, Payame Ima was worshiped. Married men were also excluded with the women. The rituals were for a coming-0f-age for boys into manhood. However, the ability to divine witches was also received through the rituals. This was believed to help protect the boys from witchcraft.
Major Themes:
1) Women's work was integral to the cult.
By P J Stewart and A Strathern
Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 5.3 (Sept 9,
1999): p345.
This article examines three cults based around female spirits in the PNG highlands: one in Hagen, one in Duna, and one in Pangia. The cults generally are/were practiced by groups of men worshiping a female spirit, asking for success in reproduction and other things (varied by cult).
Duna, which was the more geographically removed of the three focused on acquiring powers for the individual. Such powers might be detecting witches through divination, healing, etc. Each parish had its own maternal spirit.
Hagen was more group oriented in its goals, stressing alliances through exchanges. Pangia was similarly group-focused.
Christianity has since its introduction influenced these beliefs. Many of the menstral rituals were abandoned, cult practices were dissuaded and it promoted monogamy rather than the polygyny (and some polyandry) practiced by these groups.
Hagen's cult was extant from 1964 through 1984. Pangia's began in the 1920s, but died out within a generation, no longer present when Christian missionaries arrived in 1967. Duna the cults slowly vanished in the 1960s as Christianity came into the region. That said, the middle aged and older adults are still influenced by some of the cult beliefs today.
Hagen's cult was around Amb Kor. The tribe would invite allies to participate in the rituals. They divived the men into 2 groups, rapa (men's house) and amb-nga (women's house). One man from each group would be paired together in the ritual. Women stayed outside of the ritual grounds and sex was avoided during the ritual. However, women provided the food and sacrifices for the rituals. After preparations were complete, there would be a ritual dance and a feast.
The Pangia cult was around Laiyeroa. It placed limits on menstrating women. Also limited which foods could be consumed and involved a ritualized cooking. Sex again was avoided during the ritual. There was a fear about injesting menstral blood. It was believed that doing so could make a man pregnant. As gender confusion is greatly feared in the culture, any such injestion was greatly feared and the rituals protected the men from the power of menstral blood.
In Duna, Payame Ima was worshiped. Married men were also excluded with the women. The rituals were for a coming-0f-age for boys into manhood. However, the ability to divine witches was also received through the rituals. This was believed to help protect the boys from witchcraft.
Major Themes:
1) Women's work was integral to the cult.
- cults needed both genders to collaborate
- women provided needed food/sacrifices (pigs)
- Also made netbags (which symbolized the womb)
- both genders have to keep taboos
- even the exclusion taboos needed to be kept for the rituals potency
- ritutals benefited both genders
- Hagen/Pangia had visual elements that inferred sexual activity and the procreative outcome
- used reproductive organs of sacrificed sows
- Duna had male and female elements merged in a hut (womb)
- Blood -> fertile woman, no blood (yet) -> Not fertile
- Absence of blood in a fertile woman was a good sign
- Taboo due to 'power of menstral blood' and the fear of male -> female gender changes
- narratives stress that achieving procreation (or at least wives) through trickery leads to problems
- Rituals require the collaboration of the genders
- Incest both frowned upon and common
- Boys today "spend too much time with their mothers", implied that it might lead to incest
- everyone helps with brideprice for sons to avoid incest
- Daughters' brideprices used often to pay off father's debts paying for the mother
- Male cults have collaborative elements and themes
- Male exclucivity obscures both female agency in the rituals and symbolization of gender relations
- Gender alliances stressed rather than male dominance
- Both separation and conjuction stressed
Thursday, June 4, 2009
Betel Nut (part 2)
Source: Wikipedia
The practice of chewing Betel Nut spans the area from south east Asia (Thailand, Cambodia, etc.) to PNG and the Solomon Islands. Combining the Areca nut and the Betel leaf for their psychoactive properties seems to have been around for at least four thousand years, according to archeological findings in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand.
The effects typically are the same as a cup of coffee. That said, it does have a fairly strong carcinogenic effect, especially the processed/dried forms. The preparation is a cut nut wrapped in a leaf, with lime.
In PNG, the nut is usually consumed fresh, not in its dried forms.
The practice of chewing Betel Nut spans the area from south east Asia (Thailand, Cambodia, etc.) to PNG and the Solomon Islands. Combining the Areca nut and the Betel leaf for their psychoactive properties seems to have been around for at least four thousand years, according to archeological findings in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand.
The effects typically are the same as a cup of coffee. That said, it does have a fairly strong carcinogenic effect, especially the processed/dried forms. The preparation is a cut nut wrapped in a leaf, with lime.
In PNG, the nut is usually consumed fresh, not in its dried forms.
Article Notes: Bartle, Neville
Basic Themes of Melanesian Worldview
Published: self published (?)
Major themes/concepts:
Life is clan-centered
Published: self published (?)
Major themes/concepts:
Life is clan-centered
- Tribe first, self/others later
- leads to corruption in govt and business
- resources should be used to help tribe
- A gives B a gift. B now owes A one, A can ask for it
- No giving vs selling, all trade
- Share the wealth (means lots of people owe you)
- Pols spread money/projects for votes.
- A injures B, B can extract revenge from A
- Modern courts confuse this, causing problems with law/order
- Friends will pay back/give gifts
- Males stay and give to tribe
- Females give to another tribe
- Males -> Gardener, Females -> Garden
- Homosexuality is rare/non-existant
- Sex not mentioned, marriage a way of "sharing the wealth" and making someone owe you
- Big Man has a lot of people who owe them
- Happens in Politics lots
- Pols switch sides as it suits them
- Polygamy -> lots of people, children, also allies with wives' tribes
- Time is neither linear nor cyclic
- Series of "nows"
- "Do you have a headache" will be answered in the affirmative if they have -ever- had a headache
- Tok Pisin does not have true tenses
- Little planning for future (food always available, no need)
- Some remembering of past
- Live in now
- Life abundant
- no spirit/physical duality
- Appease spirits to right physical issues
- All power should produce
- Less stress on religious doctrine, more on what it does for the adherent
- pragmatic life view
- no need for future planning (food available year round)
- Similar to Shinto beliefs
- Dead influence physical
- need appeased via sacrifice
- blood sacrifices have become rare
- no traditional heaven/hell analogue
- Polyreligous tendancies
- "Cover all bases"
- Like to feast
- No indiginous methods of food storing
- Rather, when abundant, share with everyone. Then they owe you
Wednesday, June 3, 2009
Betel Nut (Part 1)
It seems to be the regional drug of choice. A stimulant, so says the guide book, from some local plant that grows on the island. The seed-pod is plucked, the nut extracted and chewed, spitting the saliva it causes you to create. It also has the effect of staining one's teeth red-brown.
The stains are on everyone: men, women, children that I would think would be barely out of elementary school. It's somewhat omnipresent. (Easily a third of the people I saw at market and the grocery had evident stains on their teeth.) Even the roads are stained with the bright red splatters of the spit from users. I've not seen anyone I could tell was on the substance, but I don't know how potent it is.
One of the local missionaries says that it's addictive, but I don't know if it is physiologically or psychologically addictive. (And I find it amusing that coffee and caffeine are just fine, but any other stimulant is to be treated with suspicion.) A bit further study on it will help.
I've seen what I think is it being sold from little stands on the side of the road. It's a small, green pods. Usually set apart from other stands. I can't tell if there's a native stigma to it or if the stigma on it is because white-man put it there. It is forbidden in a number of places, but it seems that may be to prevent the red stains and possibly the problems with intoxicated users.
The stains are on everyone: men, women, children that I would think would be barely out of elementary school. It's somewhat omnipresent. (Easily a third of the people I saw at market and the grocery had evident stains on their teeth.) Even the roads are stained with the bright red splatters of the spit from users. I've not seen anyone I could tell was on the substance, but I don't know how potent it is.
One of the local missionaries says that it's addictive, but I don't know if it is physiologically or psychologically addictive. (And I find it amusing that coffee and caffeine are just fine, but any other stimulant is to be treated with suspicion.) A bit further study on it will help.
I've seen what I think is it being sold from little stands on the side of the road. It's a small, green pods. Usually set apart from other stands. I can't tell if there's a native stigma to it or if the stigma on it is because white-man put it there. It is forbidden in a number of places, but it seems that may be to prevent the red stains and possibly the problems with intoxicated users.
Friday, May 22, 2009
Some History and Culture
Papua New Guinea was more or less ignored by the West until late in the 19th century. Human remains have been found dating back 50,000 years. Even after the West started to have more than a passing interest in the country, it was mostly constrained to the coast. It has been administered by the Germans, the Japanese and the Australians before gaining independence in 1975.
The Highlands specifically weren't explored until the 20th century, when they were explored and "pacified". Today, they are the most densely populated areas of the country. Mostly agricultural, they produce coffee, tea, cocoa, and other cash crops, as well as traditional villages and gardens.
The inhabitants are tribal and continue to practice ritual gift-giving. Inter-tribal gift ceremonies can be lavish and extravagant. While continuing to hold to traditional tribal villages, they have adopted a lot of modern technology and customs: gifts today include traditional food and livestock (pigs) as well as motor vehicles. Tribes do also practice tribal warfare, though the violence is limited to the offending tribe (and outsides, a la Europeans, are more or less ignored). Mostly wounds arise out of this, but death is not unheard of.
Dress ranges from the traditional wicker belt, perhaps with a flap of cloth in front and leaves covering the rear for men and grass skirts for women to western apparel (though women do not wear pants). Traditional wear is mostly saved for sing sings, the gift-giving ceremonies.
The Highlands specifically weren't explored until the 20th century, when they were explored and "pacified". Today, they are the most densely populated areas of the country. Mostly agricultural, they produce coffee, tea, cocoa, and other cash crops, as well as traditional villages and gardens.
The inhabitants are tribal and continue to practice ritual gift-giving. Inter-tribal gift ceremonies can be lavish and extravagant. While continuing to hold to traditional tribal villages, they have adopted a lot of modern technology and customs: gifts today include traditional food and livestock (pigs) as well as motor vehicles. Tribes do also practice tribal warfare, though the violence is limited to the offending tribe (and outsides, a la Europeans, are more or less ignored). Mostly wounds arise out of this, but death is not unheard of.
Dress ranges from the traditional wicker belt, perhaps with a flap of cloth in front and leaves covering the rear for men and grass skirts for women to western apparel (though women do not wear pants). Traditional wear is mostly saved for sing sings, the gift-giving ceremonies.
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